The greatest Confucian scholar of the age was Kong Qiu. His distant ancestor was Prince Fu Fuhe of Duke Min of Song, who lived around the same time as King Li of Zhou and had given up his claim to the throne in favor of his younger brother, Duke Li of Song. The great-grandson of Fu Fuhe was Zheng Kaofu, who thrice received the title of Senior Minister of Song during the early Eastern Zhou period, becoming more cautious with each promotion. Kaofu's son Kongfu Jia served under Duke Shang of Song (719-710 BCE) as Grand Marshal but was killed by the Grand Preceptor Huafu Du. From this point onward, the Kong family declined. It was not until the great-grandson of Kongfu Jia, Kong Fangshu, fearing the encroachment of the Hua family, that the family moved to the state of Lu, where they became residents. Fangshu's son Bo Xia fathered Kong He. He, also known as Shuliang He, was a warrior under the command of Zangsun He, a high-ranking official of Lu, renowned for his bravery and military achievements.
He initially married a woman from the Shi family, who bore him nine daughters; he then took a concubine who gave birth to Mengpi, who suffered from foot disease and was disabled. In his later years, he married Zheng Zai, who bore him Confucius, whose given name was Qiu and courtesy name Zhongni.
Confucius was born in 551 BCE in the town of Zouyi in the state of Lu (modern-day Qufu, Shandong Province). Orphaned at an early age, both his father and mother died when he was young, leaving him in dire poverty. He worked as a storehouse clerk and a field supervisor for the nobility, gaining experience in accounting and animal husbandry, which he performed admirably. Through these interactions with the nobility, he also learned much about their knowledge and skills, such as poetry, rituals, archery, and charioteering. Due to his tireless dedication to learning, by the age of thirty, he had become well-known among the nobility for his understanding of rituals. After establishing himself academically, he began teaching others, though it is unclear exactly when this phase of his life began.
In 518 BCE, Doctor Meng Xizi of Lu greatly admired Confucius. Before his death, Xizi instructed his servants to have his two sons learn rituals from Confucius, namely Meng Yizi and Nan Gong Jingshu, at the time when Confucius was thirty-four. The following year, Duke Zhao of Lu was exiled to Qi by the Three Huan families, and Confucius also went to Qi, serving as a retainer for the wealthy Gao Zhaozi family. Although treated respectfully by King Jing of Qi, he was not employed. In 510 BCE, Duke Zhao died in Qi. The following year, Duke Ding of Lu ascended the throne, and Confucius returned to Lu around this time.
In 505 BCE, Yang Hu, a retainer of the Ji Sun clan, instigated a coup, imprisoning Doctor Huanzi of the Ji Sun clan. Huanzi only gained release after swearing obedience. Yang Hu then controlled the politics of Lu for three years. During his rule, he sought to involve Confucius, but Confucius refused. Later, Yang Hu was driven out by the Meng Sun and Shu Sun clans and fled to Qi, allowing the Three Huan families to regain power. By this time, Meng Yizi had become a senior official of the Meng Sun clan, and another disciple of Confucius, Zi Lu, succeeded Yang Hu as a retainer of the Ji Sun clan. With the support of these two disciples, Confucius stepped onto the political stage of Lu.
In 501 BCE, Confucius was appointed Magistrate of Zhongdu by Duke Ding of Lu, at the age of fifty-one. He subsequently advanced through several positions, including Minister of Works and Chief Justice, serving in the latter role for about three years (500-498 BCE), during which he achieved remarkable results. In 500 BCE, he assisted Duke Ding in meeting King Jing of Qi at Jiagu on the border of Qi. Qi intended to threaten Duke Ding with troops from Lai, but Confucius was prepared, thwarting Qi's plans and ensuring that Lu did not suffer losses during the treaty negotiations.
In 498 BCE, Zi Lu, loyal to the Ji clan, initiated the "Destruction of the Three Fortified Cities" campaign. These cities were Fei of the Ji Sun clan, Hou of the Shu Sun clan, and Cheng of the Meng Sun clan. Fei had been a base for rebellions led by retainers of the Ji clan, notably Gongshan Buniu at the time. Hou had been occupied by Hou Fan, the horse master of the Shu Sun clan, in 500 BCE. Cheng, belonging to the Meng Sun clan, had not experienced such rebellions but was targeted possibly to weaken the Meng clan. Confucius supported Zi Lu's proposal, leading Duke Ding to oversee the operation. As a result, Cheng was spared, while Hou and Fei were destroyed. During the destruction of Fei, Confucius was entrusted by the Ji clan, acting as Chief Justice and temporarily assuming the role of Prime Minister of Lu. However, after the destruction of Fei, the major threat to the Ji clan was removed, and they no longer treated Confucius with respect, leading him to resign after only three months.
In 497 BCE, Confucius left Lu for Wei, traveling there due to its proximity to Lu and its abundance of scholars. At the time, the capital of Wei was Diqiu, ruled by Duke Ling, who was preoccupied with his wife Nanzi and showed little interest in state affairs. Upon his arrival, Confucius was unable to meet the duke and thus left after ten months. On his way to Chen (in 496 BCE), he was detained in Kuang (a region of Wei, now southwest Changyuan County, Henan Province), mistaken for Yang Hu who had previously acted violently in Kuang. After escaping, he returned to Wei. In 495 BCE, he finally met Duke Ling, intending to serve in government, but the duke admired Confucius' reputation without delegating any responsibilities to him. At the time, Nanzi wielded power, the crown prince had fled, and the politics of Wei were chaotic. Yet Duke Ling wanted to invade Jin to expand his military influence abroad. In 493 BCE, he consulted Confusion on military strategy, but Confucius rejected the inquiry and immediately left Wei. The following year, Confucius traveled to Cao, soon leaving for Song, where he narrowly escaped assassination by Huan Tui, the military commander of Song. Thereafter, Confucius reached Chen, where he served in government. In 498 BCE, due to Wu's invasion of Chen, Confucius left. On the border of Chen and Cai, they nearly starved to death. That same year, he traveled from Cai (then part of Chu) to Ye (a region of Chu), returning to Chen and then to Wei. The following year, Confucius once again served in Wei, where a new ruler, Duke Chu, was already in power in his fifth year. Confucius remained in Wei until 484 BCE, when he was welcomed back to Lu by Ji Kangzi. During his fourteen years abroad, he traversed several states, enduring hardships and dangers, often encountering ridicule from recluses, yet never receiving trust from a wise ruler to fulfill his ideals. By this time, Confucius was sixty-eight years old, and Lu had long since changed rulers, with Duke Ai currently in his eleventh year of reign.
Upon his return to Lu, Duke Ai and Ji Kangzi treated Confucius with great respect but did not allow him to participate in practical politics. Instead, he was consulted as a respected elder. During the five or six years between his return and his death, he seems to have spent much of his time revising ancient texts, revising the old tunes of the "Three Hundred Poems," and it is said that the existing "Spring and Autumn Annals" were also edited by him during this period. He died in 479 BCE (the forty-first year of King Jing of Zhou, the sixteenth year of Duke Ai of Lu), at the age of seventy-three.
During Confucius' time, the central plains situation stabilized temporarily due to the peace alliance brokered by Xiang Ju, but the southern states of Wu and Yue were fiercely competing, and the aristocratic clans of various states grew increasingly powerful and arrogant. By the time of his death, the Tian clan of Qi and the Han, Zhao, and Wei clans of Jin had laid the foundation for seizing and dividing the public domains. Not long after his death, Yue conquered Wu, ushering history into a new era.
(2) Confucius' Character and Cultivation
After Confucius' death, his disciples or second-generation disciples recorded his words and deeds, compiling them into a book called "Analects." It is unclear who precisely authored the "Analects." According to Song Dynasty scholars, it may have been written by the disciples of Confucius' students Zeng Shen and You Ruo, as only these two are specially referred to as "Master" in the text, while others are addressed by their given names. This view is generally credible. The existing "Analects" consists of twenty chapters. According to Qing Dynasty scholars, the last five chapters contain at least some parts that were tampered with by late Warring States period writers, but the book remains an invaluable source describing Confucius' life.
The Confucius depicted in this book is a gentleman of warmth, humility, and frugality, as well as a diligent and refined scholar. In the political arena, he is a statesman of talent and dignity; in private life, he is a devoted teacher who tirelessly instructs others. On one hand, he actively seeks opportunities to realize his political ideals, while on the other hand, he can remain steadfast and uphold his principles despite hardship and poverty. He adhered to a moral law throughout his life, known as "Ren." Ren not only helped form his perfect personality but also extended this moral law to politics and education, creating new political ideas and educational practices.
What is Ren? Simply put, it is the sincere and appropriate expression of empathy between people. In Confucius' view, a "Junzi" is someone with genuine character who acts accordingly. He believed Ren is the essence of all morality; without Ren, all morality becomes hollow. Confucius himself embodied Ren, never eating fully when there was a funeral nearby, changing his demeanor when encountering those in mourning or the blind. When a friend died without means for burial, he took care of all the funeral arrangements. He always thought of others, never imposing on them what he himself would not desire.
Ren was also Confucius' standard for evaluating individuals. He believed those who spoke overly sweet words or wore excessively fine clothing were rarely Ren. On the contrary, those who were strong, resolute, simple, and slow to speak were closer to Ren. His disciple Zai Wo once discussed the issue of "three-year mourning" with him, suggesting that mourning parents for three years wasted academic pursuits and should be reduced to one year. Confucius asked if Zai Wo felt at ease with this suggestion, to which he replied affirmatively. Confucius said, "If you feel at ease, then do it!" But Confucius considered Zai Wo lacking in Ren because he prioritized practical benefits over emotions. Another disciple, Yan Yuan, was intelligent and hardworking, appearing slow, and Confucius most admired him, saying, "Only Yan Yuan could continuously adhere to Ren for three months without deviation; other students occasionally practiced it."
Confucius believed that those with Ren must possess courage, stating, "All those aspiring to Ren would sacrifice their lives to achieve Ren and would never destroy Ren to preserve their lives." These words vividly demonstrate Confucius' devout belief in and courage to practice this moral law.
Another aspect of Confucius' lifestyle was optimism. Despite his deep interest in politics, he maintained noble conduct in the political arena. Whenever the ruler mistrusted him or the evil powers were insurmountable, he would retreat gracefully without clinging to power or resorting to violence to compete for fame and profit. Between wealth and personal integrity, he chose the latter. He was unafraid of poverty, once saying, "A coarse diet and a humble dwelling still offer joy; unjust wealth and honor are like floating clouds, ever-changing."
Diligent study and reflection were also characteristics of Confucius. From a young age, he set a goal for learning and pursued it relentlessly. Immersed in academia, he forgot hunger, sorrow, and even the approach of old age. Even in the last few years of his life, he was still organizing ancient classics, making him a lifelong learner. Because of his diligence, he became widely knowledgeable. More impressively, he not only loved learning himself but also tirelessly educated others, sharing all he knew without reservation. He severely criticized students who lacked ambition and lazy friends. Among his many talented disciples, Confucius believed only Yan Yuan truly loved learning and understood his teachings. Regarding his attitude toward learning, it can be summarized in these two statements: "Know what you know, and know what you do not know."
(3) Confucius' Political Ideals
Confucius' political views aimed at restoring the past as a reform. He hoped that the "world" could restore the former glory of King Wu and the Duke of Zhou. He almost entirely accepted the cultural relics and institutions of the prosperous Western Zhou dynasty, except for minor modifications.
The first essential step towards achieving this political ideal was "correcting the names." His meaning was that both nobles and commoners should maintain their proper roles to ensure that names matched realities. Those who exceeded their stations, whether feudal lords, ministers, retainers, or commoners who disregarded their roles, should be punished to achieve the ideal state where "rulers act like rulers, ministers like ministers, fathers like fathers, and sons like sons." He seemed especially critical of overstepping aristocratic families, expressing deep dissatisfaction with the Ji clan and the Tian clan of Qi. He believed that without correcting the names, all political matters would fall off track, and neither punishment nor education would be effective, resulting in confusion among the people.
Moreover, he advocated applying Ren to politics, using love for the people as the goal of governance. A government maintained by laws alone does not represent the highest level of governance; it must also include moral education. In other words, governance should not be entirely based on laws but mainly on moral education; laws are only used when moral education fails. He believed, "Directing the people with administrative orders and regulating them with penal laws makes them avoid crime but does not make them understand shame; directing them with virtue and regulating them with propriety makes them understand shame and improve themselves."
The content of Confucius' moral education mainly included two aspects: propriety, fostering a harmonious and respectful social atmosphere to prevent disputes; and filial piety, ensuring that people honor their parents appropriately and sincerely worship their ancestors, thereby naturally cultivating kindness and strengthening the foundations of the