Scholar Wang Honghua, who gained fame for proposing the "Three Kingdoms Five Directions Theory," has recently released a new work. He argues that the deaths of Cao Cao's renowned generals, Xiahou Dun and Xiahou Yuan, were related to Cao Cao himself. In his later years, Cao Cao cleared obstacles for Cao Pi's ascension to the throne by resorting to extreme measures, including eliminating Yang Xiu, an ally of Cao Zhi, through open execution and secretly using witchcraft to kill his two resilient younger brothers from the Xiahou family. The relationship between the Cao and Xiahou families stems from the fact that Cao Cao's father originally surnamed Xiahou, but was adopted by the eunuch Cao Teng.
Wang Honghua also believes that Luo Guanzhong's political ideal was to break the "family rule" and establish a democratic system of governance balanced by different surnames. Below is the original text:
Warfare is like playing Go; in "Romance of the Three Kingdoms," the three powers often play out scenarios akin to "fighting over a ko." For example, Wei, Shu, and Wu fought over Jingzhou, while Wei and Shu contended in Hanzhong. Jingzhou and Hanzhong sometimes acted as each other's ko material, making for an interesting situation.
1. Cao Cao timely consolidated his defenses, securing one-third of the world for Cao Pi's ascension.
Why did Cao Cao consistently downplay Liu Bei's threat and repeatedly capture and release him? Because Cao Cao clearly understood that although Liu Bei had harmony among people and heavenly timing (as the imperial uncle), he lacked geographical advantage and could not become a major force. However, when Liu Bei allied with Liu Biao, Cao Cao became anxious. Soon after, he led a large army to occupy Jingzhou, including Xinye. At this point, Cao Cao seemed to have everything under control. Yet, he never anticipated that Liu Bei's strategist Zhuge Liang would form an alliance with Sun Quan, leveraging Eastern Wu's geographical advantage (and harmony among people). From then on, Liu Bei grew unstoppable, seizing Jingzhou through the Battle of Red Cliffs and taking Yi Province during Cao Cao's campaign against Ma Chao and Han Sui in Xiliang. Cao Cao, a man of great insight, realized that the tide had turned and could only secure one-third of the world.
But was obtaining one-third of the world so easy? No. As the saying goes, it's easier to conquer the world than to rule it. The difficulty lies in consolidating loosely acquired territories into a stable power base—making them truly belong to one surname, one family, one person. This differs from Go, which requires at least two or more "eyes" to survive. Cao Cao was a master of this special game of Go. Just as Zhuge Liang intentionally engaged in a "ko fight" over Jingzhou, Cao Cao prepared to do the same in Hanzhong. Zhuge Liang aimed to eliminate Guan Yu via Jingzhou, while Cao Cao sought to remove Xiahou Yuan through Hanzhong. Guan Yu was a hindrance to Zhuge Liang, and the Xiahou brothers were obstacles to Cao Pi's future ascension: first, the Xiahou brothers were braver but less strategic than the Cao family, often stubborn and hard to control, such as Cao Zhang's ambitions after Cao Cao's death; second, the Xiahou brothers' qualifications, merits, and positions rivaled or even surpassed those of the Cao family—Xiahou Dun became Grand General, and Xiahou Yuan was a frontier-defending general; third, the Xiahou brothers shared the original surname of Cao Cao’s family, making them purer than the eunuch descendants (Cao Cao's father originally surnamed Xiahou, later adopted by the eunuch Cao Teng). These two fierce tigers were evidently beyond Cao Pi's control, forcing him to barely manage their descendants and the scholar-official Cao Zhi.
It should be noted that Cao Cao was not necessarily worried about the Xiahou brothers usurping the throne themselves but feared they might serve as regents, helping their sons ascend. Any suspicion required removal.
This is a paradox. Initially allowing the Xiahou brothers to lead the charge was meant to showcase the glory of Cao Cao's own kin and prevent credit from falling elsewhere. Now, however, this strategy had elevated their status too high. But Cao Cao possessed foresight akin to Zhuge Liang and already had a solution in mind.
For Zhuge Liang, Guan Yu served a dual purpose—initially beneficial but later detrimental. Early on, Guan Yu maintained Liu Bei's strong harmony among people, let Cao Cao escape at Huarong Trail, and temporarily guarded Jingzhou. Later, Zhuge Liang decided to replace Guan Yu, changing the two-pronged military strategy outlined in the "Longzhong Plan" from Liu Bei and Guan Yu to himself and Ge Jin (refer to "Deciphering 'Romance of the Three Kingdoms': The 'Five Directions of the Three Kingdoms'" by Wang Honghua). Due to various reasons, Zhuge Liang failed, but inadvertently helped Liu Bei, who wanted to use Zhuge Liang to eliminate his non-family brother Guan Yu. Emperors throughout history share a similar mindset—both Liu Bei and Cao Cao aimed to first isolate themselves before ascending to the throne.
"Romance of the Three Kingdoms" primarily criticizes this entrenched "family rule" mentality. Initially, the leaders of the Three Kingdoms embraced inclusiveness—Liu Bei befriended non-family brothers, Cao Cao didn't avoid the Xiahou brothers, and Sun Ce and Sun Quan treated Zhou Yu like a close sibling. However, they all eventually degenerated into tyrants, willing to betray trust and eliminate allies to create a kingdom ruled by one family. The author longed for a state structure governed according to the rules of Go—a system balanced and co-governed by two or more families.
2. Cao Cao's unpredictable actions stem from Confucian principles on the outside, Legalist methods within, and witchcraft in practice.
Let us examine how Cao Cao played the "ko fight" and "abandoned pieces."
Compared to the vast northern regions and Xiliang, Hanzhong was a small territory, geographically unremarkable, a mere "chicken rib"—neither delicious to eat nor worth throwing away. Yet why did Cao Cao personally lead campaigns there twice? The first time was to drive out the weak Zhang Lu, which could have been achieved without his presence; the second time was to resist Liu Bei at his peak, which he could not hold even if he went. Why bother? Do not hastily ridicule, for Luo Guanzhong's evaluation was: "A hero does not harbor vulgar thoughts, his comings and goings are not easily seen... Ancient deeds, whether great or small, all have meaning behind their apparent insignificance. Scholars lightly criticize the dead, but the dead mock the scholars' arrogance." Clearly, Cao Cao, at least the Cao Cao depicted by Luo Guanzhong, was unpredictable, difficult for ordinary scholars to understand. Let us transcend scholarly pettiness and attempt to analyze using supernatural and witchcraft thinking.
Originally, Cao Cao's complexity stemmed from two opposing types of witchcraft following him throughout his life—one Confucian-based represented by Zuo Ci, and the other Legalist-based represented by Guan Lu. Legalism formed the foundation, Confucianism the surface. Initially, he skillfully blended both ideologies seamlessly, such as telling Chen Gong after assassinating Dong Zhuo: "Rather let me betray the world than let the world betray me." He then transformed his image, raising the banner of "loyalty and righteousness" in his hometown. At that time, he issued decrees emphasizing heavenly timing and united all possible allies, including his original family members Xiahou Dun and Xiahou Yuan, valuing harmony among people.
However, as Cao Cao's power grew, he became arrogant, beginning to prioritize Legalism over Confucianism, shedding the outer cloak of Confucianism. Only when gravely ill and with the fate of the realm still uncertain did he decide to step back, leaving the emperor's role for his son. After all, his son would posthumously honor him as Emperor Taizu, allowing him to achieve both the roles of Confucian prime minister and Hegemon-King. It is important to note that neither Zuo Ci nor Guan Lu were actual sorcerers but symbols of Cao Cao's internal Confucian and Legalist ideologies, including his excellent predictive abilities. Like Jia Baoyu dreaming of Jingtai and Keqing, Zuo Ci's prophecy—"Earth Rat follows Metal Tiger, the villainous hero will soon end"—was his premonition of his impending death in the Gengzi year. Guan Lu's prediction—"highest rank below the emperor"—was his self-consolation after abandoning the idea of becoming emperor. Why can we judge this way? First, reviewing the entire novel, Luo Guanzhong was a thoroughgoing atheist; second, if there were truly powerful deities like Zuo Ci, they would have immediately executed the deeply hated Cao Cao rather than letting him live until "Earth Rat follows Metal Tiger." Similarly, they wouldn't have allowed Liu Bei to merely settle in Western Shu (Luo Guanzhong believed that gods and spirits were the soul leaving the body during illness, a pathological reflection. Symptoms exhibited by figures like Sun Ce and Liu Bei align with modern psychology). In his remaining days, Cao Cao focused solely on clearing obstacles for his son Cao Pi.
3. Yang Xiu, physically in Cao Cao's camp but mentally aligned with the Han dynasty, deliberately engaged in a deadly game with Cao Cao.
Cao Cao chose Cao Pi as his heir not only because he was the eldest son but also because he embodied the continuation of Cao Cao's Legalist ideology, possessing the ambition and cunning necessary to realize Cao Cao's unfinished dreams. Conversely, Cao Zhi represented the continuation of the Confucian facade Cao Cao wished to shed. If Cao Zhi became heir, he might have handed Northern China to Liu Bei. This was not impossible—Cao Zhi's main strategist, Yang Xiu, once arrogantly treated Zhang Song rudely, allowing him to take the map of Western Sichuan and defect to Liu Bei. Yang Xiu came from a prestigious family, adhered philosophically to Confucianism, and politically supported the legitimacy of the Liu family.
As longtime boss and secretary, Cao Cao and Yang Xiu knew each other's depths. Thus, they decided to stage a double act in Hanzhong where the boss deliberately set a "chicken rib" trap and the secretary willingly jumped into it. Cao Cao's goal was to eliminate Cao Zhi's supporters, making it easier for Cao Pi in the future; Yang Xiu's aim was to risk his life disrupting Cao Cao's morale to help Liu Bei smoothly capture Hanzhong. This manifested in several ways: (1) During the urgent march to support Xiahou Yuan, Cao Cao suddenly indulged in elegance, visiting Cai Yong's residence to explore the word puzzle on the Cao E stele: "Yellow silk, young woman, grandchild mortar." Cao Cao's intention was to provoke Yang Xiu's pride. Yang Xiu, pretending innocence, boasted that it meant "excellent writing." (2) After casually issuing the "chicken rib" night slogan, Cao Cao suddenly became extremely sensitive, "holding a steel axe, privately patrolling around the camp." Yang Xiu and Cao Cao, both difficult masters and servants, collided in the camp. (3) After killing Yang Xiu, the novel used flashback to reveal Cao Cao's prior annoyance with Yang Xiu's support for Cao Zhi. By this time, Yang Xiu increasingly disliked Cao Cao, finding him unworthy of assistance due to his narrowing vision, evidenced by his criticism of the garden gate being too wide.
Cao Cao and Yang Xiu's open confrontation in Hanzhong resulted in a win-win yet lose-lose situation. Yang Xiu lost his young life, and Cao Cao lost two front teeth.
4. Cao Cao uses Yang Xiu to create opportunities to harm Xiahou Yuan and Xiahou Dun.
If Cao Cao's grand expedition to Hanzhong was merely to kill Yang Xiu, it would not qualify as unpredictable, as Yang Xiu's repeated offenses could have been dealt with earlier. But why did Cao Cao insist on keeping Yang Xiu until Hanzhong? Because he planned to use Yang Xiu's lively personality to find secret ways to harm Xiahou Yuan and Xiahou Dun. Please observe:
Step one: Cao Cao uses Yang Xiu to create an opportunity to kill Xiahou Yuan.
After Yang Xiu deciphered Cai Yong's "excellent writing," Cao Cao was inspired to motivate Xiahou Yuan by calling him "wonderful talent." He wrote to Xiahou Yuan: "All generals should balance strength and flexibility, not relying solely on bravery. If you rely only on bravery, you are merely an enemy of one man. I now station my large army at Nanzheng, wanting to see your 'wonderful talent,' do not disgrace these two words." This tactic proved effective, not only stimulating Xiahou Yuan's eagerness to achieve success but also making him believe he possessed wonderful talent. Ignoring Zhang He's advice, Xiahou Yuan ordered Xiahou Shang: "You go scout, engage Huang Zhong in battle. You should lose, not win. I have a wonderful plan, thus thus." Naturally, this backfired, leading to his swift defeat by the experienced Fa Zheng and vigorous Huang Zhong. Here, Cao Cao employed a classic strategy of inflation and arrogance, knowing full well that Xiahou Yuan was "brave but lacking in strategy," yet pushing him to become immediately balanced and both wise and brave. Cao Cao mentioned observing from Nanzheng, essentially withholding support. Who writes letters, merely supervises from afar, and passively observes without providing aid? In reality, Cao Cao not only withheld support but also drove a wedge between Zhang He and Xiahou Yuan, leaving Yuan to face strong enemies alone. Upon Xiahou Yuan's death, Cao Cao immediately cited Guan Lu's prophecy: "38 crisscrossing" refers to the 24th year of Jian'an; "Yellow pig meets tiger" refers to the first month of the year Ji Hai; "South of Dingjun" refers to the south of Dingjun Mountain; "losing one leg" refers to the brotherly affection between Yuan and Cao Cao.
How treacherous Cao Cao was! Though he himself killed Xiahou Yuan, he shifted blame using witchcraft and concealed it with "loud crying." Tracing back further, we find that as early as when Cao Cao assigned Xiahou Yuan to guard Hanzhong after pacifying it, he already harbored murderous intent. His purpose in pacifying Hanzhong was first to slow Liu Bei's expansion and second to "abandon pieces" and eliminate Xiahou Yuan. Although many advised him to attack Western Sichuan while victorious, he clearly understood Hanzhong was merely a "chicken rib," only useful for a small "ko fight." Relative to Liu Bei, it held little value. When Cao Cao threatened Western Sichuan by pacifying Hanzhong, Zhuge Liang quickly found ko material—He Fei; when Liu Bei captured Hanzhong and threatened Northern Wei, Sima Yi found greater ko material—Jingzhou. Thus, "Three Kingdoms" entered a dynamic equilibrium.
Step two: Cao Cao uses Yang Xiu to intimidate Xiahou Dun.
Due to Xiahou Dun's straightforward nature, believing Yang Xiu's guesses, he ordered his troops to prepare for retreat prematurely, causing chaos in the army. Therefore, Cao Cao "killed Yang Xiu, feigned anger at Xiahou Dun, and intended to kill him. Officials pleaded for mercy. Cao Cao scolded Xiahou Dun and ordered the army to advance the next day." Cao Cao's attitude here mirrored Zhuge Liang's treatment of Guan Yu after Huarong Trail—ostensibly feigning anger but actually delivering a stern warning, implying: "You owe me a life, so behave yourself!" Subsequently, like Zhuge Liang, Cao Cao alternated between authority and kindness, deliberately favoring Xiahou Dun and frequently consulting him on important matters. Feeling indebted to Cao Cao, Xiahou Dun readily obeyed his commands. Eventually, on his deathbed, Cao Cao "felt Qi rushing upward, blinded, urgently summoned Xiahou Dun for consultation. Upon arriving at the palace gate, Dun suddenly saw Empress Fu, Consort Dong, two princes, Fu Wan, Dong Cheng, etc., standing amidst dark clouds. Dun was startled and fainted, subsequently falling ill." Alas, Xiahou Dun probably thought he was Cao Cao's sole trusted minister and rushed to assist, only to fall into Cao Cao's web of witchcraft. Were there really so many ghosts in Cao Cao's room? No, Cao Cao likely fabricated talismans and pretended to be divine. Xiahou Dun was not his trusted minister but a grave threat, with the real entrusted ministers being Cao Hong, Chen Qun, Jia Xu, and Sima Yi.
Unable to recover, Xiahou Dun died a few months after Cao Pi ascended the throne. Like Yuan, he was executed in three steps, differing only in timing. This was the tragic end of the one-eyed general renowned for "pulling out an arrow and eating the eyeball," dying without knowing how he perished.
5. Cao Cao mocked false children and grandchildren, concealing infinite sorrow within.
Only at the very end of his life did Cao Cao fully expose the "smallness" within the Prime Minister, sacrificing his true self—the Xiahou surname—for the sake of ensuring his eldest son's solitary reign under the false Cao surname. Ironically, Cao Cao criticized Liu Bei for adopting the "false son" Liu Feng, yet he himself was a false grandson of the Cao family. How much hidden pain Cao Cao must have felt at that moment, perhaps only he could comprehend. Liu Bei might have been momentarily speechless or unwilling to offend him further, so did not retaliate in kind. Had he done so, what would have happened? The outcome would certainly have rewritten history—Cao Cao would either have shouted and fallen off his horse in rage or silently charged toward Liu Bei...
We argue that the "Three Kingdoms" portrayed by Luo Guanzhong may not be more historically accurate than the "Records of the Three Kingdoms," but it surpasses it in philosophical goodness and literary beauty. History is fixed, but literature and philosophy flow. For six hundred years, the perfect "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" has flowed like the mighty Yangtze River into the sea, into the hearts of every reader.